Orchid information - Calypso Fairy Slipper

Calypso bulbosa (L.) Oakes

Calypso, fairy slipper

This monotypic genus is palearctic in distribution, and extends south to Arizona in the mountains of the western United States. The genus Calypso is named for the beautiful nymph in Homer's Odyssey who waylaid Ulysses on his return to Ithaca. The specific epithet bulbosa is the Latin meaning "bulbed," in reference to the small pseudobulb of this species. Orchid information.

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Photos courtesy of Emmet Judziewicz

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DESCRIPTION: Plant arising from a bulbous corm. Leaf ovate, solitary, basal, 2-6 cm long and 2-4.5 cm wide. The leaf arises in late summer and persists through winter, withering after the plant flowers.Flower solitary, pendent, terminating an 6-21 cm tall stem. Sepals lanceolate to lance-linear, 1-2 cm long and 2.5-5 mm wide, purplish-pink to purplish-white, rarely white. Petals similar to sepals, sepals and petals spreading above the labellum. Labellum saccate, oblong (often described as "slipper-shaped"), 1.5-2.5 cm long and 6-11 mm wide, with two small projections at the apex and an "apron" of tissue extending from the opening. Labellum whitish-pink, liberally streaked with madder purple, spotted with the same near the opening. The "apron" has a brush of yellow hairs near the opening to the labellum, and the projections of the labellum are often yellowish as well. The column is petaloid and overhangs the opening to the labellum.

SIMILAR SPECIES: I can think of no other orchid that could be confused with Calypso, although some may see resemblance to species of Cypripedium.

HABITAT: Almost entirely restricted to Thuja bogs in the northernmost parts of the state, where it grows on dry hummocks of organic material. It may also be found in dry Thuja-Pinus-Abies woods over limestone/dolomite along the Lake Michigan Lake Superior shores. It seems to need cool soils.

FLOWERING DATES: May 20-June 25.

POLLINATION: Calypso is pollinated by a number of species of bumblebees (Mosquin 1970, Boyden 1982). Like several other orchids in Wisconsin, it has a deceptive pollination system. The bumblebees are deceived by the yellow bristles, but upon visiting the flower, find no nectar or pollen reward.

DISCUSSION: This species is very rare in Wisconsin, and appears to have declined since Fuller (1933). Indeed, throughout the southern part its eastern range, Calypso has been in decline for the last 30 years or so. Given the preference of this orchid for cool soils, some feel its decline is an early indicator of global warming.

How to get Fair Skin

Want to Get Fair Skin

Human skin color is primarily due to melanin; it ranges from skin almost black in appearance to white with a pinkish tinge due to blood vessels underneath.^[1]Variations in skin color are mainly of genetic origin and are associated with sunlight, but the evolutionary causes are not completely certain. The leading explanation is they are adaptations to sunlight intensities which produce vitamin D deficiency or ultraviolet light damage to folic acid.^[2] Other hypotheses include protection from ambient temperature, infections, skin cancer or frostbite, an alteration in food, and sexual selection.^[3] According to scientific studies, natural human skin color diversity is highest in black or Sub-Saharan African populations.^[4]

Social relations have a significant impact on the perception of skin color. In traditional African society, light skin was often seen as unhealthy, and there was no overall preference for it. When people were of a similar ethnic background and were not exposed to intense sunlight, the main difference in skin color was the slight one between men and women which led to the old European stereotype of the "fair sex" and the "tall, dark, and handsome man". Where there was a historical context of slavery in which light-skinned people had been given preferential treatment compared to darker-skinned people in their peer group, it became confused with perceived physical attractiveness and desirable qualities such as social and intellectual competence, probity, and even mental stability. Through the power of mass media, skin tone has often become a standard for evaluating ability and prettiness and has had more of a bearing on women's self-image than that of men. A preference for women with tanned skin has emerged in the modern West; studies find that the degree of tanning is directly related to how attractive a young woman is perceived to be.

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Vitamin C Skin Lightening

Overview:

Vitamin C is a water-soluble vitamin, meaning that your body doesn't store it. We get what we need, instead, from food. You need vitamin C for the growth and repair of tissues in all parts of your body. It helps the body make collagen, an important protein used to make skin, cartilage, tendons, ligaments, and blood vessels. Vitamin C is essential for healing wounds, and for repairing and maintaining bones and teeth.

Vitamin C is an antioxidant, along with vitamin E, beta-carotene, and many other plant-based nutrients. Antioxidants block some of the damage caused by free radicals, which occur naturally when our bodies transform food into energy. The build-up of free radicals over time may be largely responsible for the aging process and can contribute to the development of health conditions such as cancer, heart disease, and arthritis.

Evidence suggests that many people may be mildly deficient in vitamin C, although serious deficiencies are rare in industrialized countries. Smoking cigarettes lowers the amount of vitamin C in the body, so smokers are at a higher risk of deficiency. Signs of vitamin deficiency include dry and splitting hair; gingivitis (inflammation of the gums) and bleeding gums; rough, dry, scaly skin; decreased wound-healing rate, easy bruising; nosebleeds; and a decreased ability to ward off infection. A severe form of vitamin C deficiency is known as scurvy.

Low levels of vitamin C have been associated with a number of conditions, including high blood pressure, gallbladder disease, stroke, some cancers, and atherosclerosis (the build-up plaque in blood vessels that can lead to heart attack and stroke). Getting enough vitamin C from your diet (by eating lots of fruit and vegetables) may help reduce the risk of developing some of these conditions. The evidence that taking vitamin C supplements will help or prevent any of these conditions is lacking, however.

Vitamin C plays a role in protecting against the following:

Heart Disease

Results of scientific studies on whether vitamin C is helpful for preventing heart attack or stroke are mixed. Vitamin C doesn't lower cholesterol levels or reduce the overall risk of heart attack, but evidence suggests that it may help protect arteries against damage.

Some studies -- though not all -- suggest that vitamin C, acting as an antioxidant, can slow down the progression of atherosclerosis (hardening of the arteries). It helps prevent damage to LDL ("bad") cholesterol, which then builds up as plaque in the arteries and can cause heart attack or stroke. Other studies suggest that vitamin C may help keep arteries flexible.

In addition, people who have low levels of vitamin C may be more likely to have a heart attack, stroke, or peripheral artery disease, all potential results of having atherosclerosis. Peripheral artery disease is the term used to describe atherosclerosis of the blood vessels to the legs. This can lead to pain when walking, known as intermittent claudication. But there is no evidence that taking vitamin C supplements will help.

The best thing to do is get enough vitamin C through your diet. That way, you also get the benefit of other antioxidants and nutrients contained in food. If you have low levels of vitamin C and have trouble getting enough through the foods you eat, ask your doctor about taking a supplement.

High Blood Pressure

Population based studies (which involve observing large groups of people over time) suggest that people who eat foods rich in antioxidants, including vitamin C, have a lower risk of high blood pressure than people who have poorer diets. Eating foods rich in vitamin C is important for your overall health, especially if you are at risk for high blood pressure. The diet physicians most frequently recommend for treatment and prevention of high blood pressure, known as the DASH (Dietary Approaches to Stop Hypertension) diet, includes lots of fruits and vegetables, which are loaded with antioxidants.

Common Cold

Despite the popular belief that vitamin C can cure the common cold, the scientific evidence doesn't support the notion. Taking vitamin C supplements regularly (not just at the beginning of a cold) produces only a small reduction in the duration of a cold (about 1 day). The only other piece of evidence supporting vitamin C for preventing colds comes from studies examining people exercising in extreme environments (athletes such as skiers and marathon runners, and soldiers in the Arctic). In these studies, vitamin C did seem to reduce the risk of getting a cold.

Cancer

Results of many population based studies (evaluating groups of people over time) suggest that eating foods rich in vitamin C may be associated with lower rates of cancer, including skin cancer, cervical dysplasia (changes to the cervix which may be cancerous or precancerous, picked up by pap smear), and, possibly, breast cancer. But these foods also contain many beneficial nutrients and antioxidants, not only vitamin C, so it's impossible to say for certain that vitamin C is protecting against cancer. Taking vitamin C supplements, on the other hand, has not been shown to have any helpful effect.

In addition, there is no evidence that taking large doses of vitamin C once diagnosed with cancer will help your treatment. Moreover, some doctors are concerned that large doses of antioxidants from supplements could interfere with chemotherapy medications. More research is needed. If you are undergoing chemotherapy, talk to your doctor before taking vitamin C or any supplement.

Osteoarthritis

Vitamin C is essential for the body to make collagen, which is a part of normal cartilage. Cartilage is destroyed in osteoarthritis (OA), putting pressure on bones and joints. In addition, some researchers think free radicals -- molecules produced by the body that can damage cells and DNA -- may also be involved in the destruction of cartilage. Antioxidants such as vitamin C appear to limit the damage caused by free radicals. However, that said, no evidence suggests that taking vitamin C supplements will help treat or prevent OA. What the evidence does show is that people who eat diets rich in vitamin C are less likely to be diagnosed with arthritis.

Taking nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs can lower your levels of vitamin C. If you take these drugs regularly for OA, you might want to take a vitamin C supplement.

Age-related Macular Degeneration

Vitamin C (500 mg) appears to work with other antioxidants, including zinc (80 mg), beta-carotene (15 mg), and vitamin E (400 IU) to protect the eyes against developing macular degeneration (AMD), the leading cause of legal blindness in people over 55 in the United States. The people who seem to benefit are those with advanced AMD. It isn't known whether this combination of nutrients helps prevent AMD or is beneficial for people with less advanced AMD.

Pre-eclampsia

Some studies suggest that taking vitamin C along with vitamin E may help prevent pre-eclampsia in women who are at high risk. Pre-eclampsia, characterized by high blood pressure and too much protein in the urine, is a common cause of pre-term births. Not all studies agree, however.

Asthma

Studies are mixed when it comes to the effect of vitamin C on asthma. Some show that low levels of vitamin C are more common in people with asthma, leading some researchers to think that low levels of vitamin C might increase the risk for this condition. Other studies seem to show that vitamin C may help reduce symptoms of exercise-induced asthma.

Other

Although the information is limited, studies suggest that vitamin C may also be helpful for:

• Boosting immune system function
• Maintaining healthy gums
• Improving vision for those with uveitis (an inflammation of the middle part of the eye)
• Treating allergy-related conditions, such as asthma, eczema, and hay fever (called allergic rhinitis)
• Reducing effects of sun exposure, such as sunburn or redness (called erythema)
• Alleviating dry mouth, particularly from antidepressant medications (a common side effect from these drugs)
• Healing burns and wounds
• Decreasing blood sugar in people with diabetes

Dietary Sources:

Some excellent sources of vitamin C are oranges, green peppers, watermelon, papaya, grapefruit, cantaloupe, strawberries, kiwi, mango, broccoli, tomatoes, Brussels sprouts, cauliflower, cabbage, and citrus juices or juices fortified with vitamin C. Raw and cooked leafy greens (turnip greens, spinach), red and green peppers, canned and fresh tomatoes, potatoes, winter squash, raspberries, blueberries, cranberries, and pineapple are also rich sources of vitamin C. Vitamin C is sensitive to light, air, and heat, so you'll get the most vitamin C if you eat fruits and vegetables raw or lightly cooked.

Available Forms:

You can purchase either natural or synthetic vitamin C, also called ascorbic acid, in a variety of forms. Tablets, capsules, and chewables are probably the most popular forms, but vitamin C also comes in powdered crystalline, effervescent, and liquid forms. Vitamin C can be purchased in dosages ranging from 25 - 1,000 mg.

"Buffered" vitamin C is also available if you find that regular ascorbic acid upsets your stomach. An esterified form of vitamin C is also available, which may be easier on the stomach for those who are prone to heartburn.

How to Take It:

The best way to take vitamin C supplements is 2 - 3 times per day, with meals, depending on the dosage. Some studies suggest that adults should take 250 - 500 mg twice a day for any benefit. Talk to your doctor before taking more than 1,000 mg of vitamin C on a daily basis and before giving vitamin C to a child.

Daily intake of dietary vitamin C (according to U.S. recommended dietary allowances), are listed below.

Pediatric

• Birth - 6 months: 40 mg
• Infants 6 - 12 months: 50 mg
• Children 1 - 3 years: 15 mg
• Children 4 - 8 years: 25 mg
• Children 9 - 13 years: 45 mg
• Adolescent girls 14 - 18 years: 65 mg
• Adolescent boys 14 - 18 years: 75 mg

Adult

• Men over 18 years: 90 mg
• Women over 18 years: 75 mg
• Breastfeeding women: 120 mg

Because smoking depletes vitamin C, people who smoke generally need an additional 35 mg per day.

The doses recommended to prevent or treat many of the conditions mentioned in the Uses section is often 500 - 1,000 mg per day.

Precautions:

Because of the potential for side effects and interactions with medications, you should take dietary supplements only under the supervision of a knowledgeable health care provider.

Vitamin C supplements have a diuretic effect, so drink plenty of fluids when taking them.

Most commercial vitamin C is made from corn. People sensitive to corn should look for alternative sources, such as sago palm.

Vitamin C increases the amount of iron absorbed from foods. People with hemochromatosis (an inherited condition where too much iron builds up in the body) should not take vitamin C supplements.

While vitamin C is generally considered safe because your body gets rid of what it does not use, in high doses (more than 2,000 mg daily) it can cause diarrhea, gas, or stomach upset. If you experience these side effects, lower the dose of vitamin C.

People with kidney problems should talk to their doctor before taking vitamin C.

People who smoke or use nicotine patches may need more vitamin C because nicotine decreases the effectiveness of vitamin C in the body.

Infants born to mothers taking 6,000 mg or more of vitamin C may develop rebound scurvy because their intake of vitamin C drops after birth. If you are pregnant, talk to your doctor before taking more than 1,000 mg of vitamin C.

Possible Interactions:

If you are being treated with any of the following medications, you should not use vitamin C supplements without first talking to your health care provider:

Aspirin and nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) -- Both aspirin and NSAIDs can lower the amount of vitamin C in the body because they cause more of the vitamin to be lost in urine. In addition, high doses of vitamin C can cause more of these drugs to stay in the body, raising the levels in your blood. Some very early research suggests that vitamin C might help protect against stomach upset that aspirin and NSAIDs can cause. If you regularly take aspirin or NSAIDs, talk to your doctor before taking more than the recommended daily allowance of vitamin C.

Acetaminophen (Tylenol) -- High doses of vitamin C may lower the amount of acetaminophen passed in urine, which could cause the levels of this drug in your blood to rise.

Aluminum-containing antacids -- Vitamin C can increase the amount of aluminum your body absorbs, which could cause the side effects of these medications to be worse. Aluminum-containing antacids include Maalox and Gaviscon.

Barbiturates -- Barbiturates may decrease the effects of vitamin C. These drugs include phenobarbital (Luminal), pentobarbital (Nembutal), and seconobarbital (Seconal).

Chemotherapy drugs -- As an antioxidant, vitamin C may interfere with the effects of some drugs taken for chemotherapy; however, some researchers speculate that vitamin C might help make chemotherapy more effective. If you are undergoing chemotherapy, do not take vitamin C or any other supplement without talking to your oncologist.

Nitrate medications for heart disease -- The combination of vitamin C with nitroglycerin, isosorbide dinitrate (Isordil), or isosorbide mononitrate (Ismo) reduces the body's tendency to build up a tolerance to these medications so that they no longer work. If you take nitrate medications, talk to your doctor about whether you should take vitamin C.

Oral contraceptives (birth control pills) and hormone replacement therapy (HRT) -- Vitamin C can cause a rise in estrogen levels when taken with these drugs, particularly if you are deficient in vitamin C to begin with and start taking supplements. Oral estrogens can also decrease the effects of vitamin C in the body.

Protease inhibitors -- Vitamin C appears to slightly lower levels of indinavir (Crixivan), a medication used to treat HIV and AIDS.

Tetracycline -- Some evidence suggests that taking vitamin C with the antibiotic tetracycline may increase the levels of this medication; it may also decrease the effects of vitamin C in the body. Other antibiotics in the same family include minocycline (Minocin) and doxycycline (Vibramycin).

Warfarin (Coumadin) -- There have been rare reports of vitamin C interfering with the effectiveness of this blood thinning medication. In recent follow-up studies, no effect was found with doses of vitamin C up to 1,000 mg per day. However, if you take warfarin or another blood thinner, talk to your doctor before taking vitamin C or any other supplement.

Lighten Your Skin With Vitamin C

Vitamin C is a water-soluble vitamin that is necessary for normal growth and development.

Water-soluble vitamins dissolve in water. Leftover amounts of the vitamin leave the body through the urine. That means you need a continuous supply of such vitamins in your diet.

Function

Vitamin C is required for the growth and repair of tissues in all parts of your body. It is necessary to form collagen, an important protein used to make skin, scar tissue, tendons, ligaments, and blood vessels. Vitamin C is essential for the healing of wounds, and for the repair and maintenance of cartilage, bones, and teeth.

Vitamin C is one of many antioxidants. Vitamin E and beta-carotene are two other well-known antioxidants. Antioxidants are nutrients that block some of the damage caused by free radicals, which are by-products that result when our bodies transform food into energy.

The build up of these by-products over time is largely responsible for the aging process and can contribute to the development of various health conditions such as cancer, heart disease, and a host of inflammatory conditions like arthritis. Antioxidants also help reduce the damage to the body caused by toxic chemicals and pollutants such as cigarette smoke.

The body does not manufacture vitamin C on its own, nor does it store it. It is therefore important to include plenty of vitamin C-containing foods in your daily diet.

Food Sources

All fruits and vegetables contain some amount of vitamin C. Foods that tend to be the highest sources of vitamin C include green peppers, citrus fruits and juices, strawberries, tomatoes, broccoli, turnip greens and other leafy greens, sweet and white potatoes, and cantaloupe.

Other excellent sources include papaya, mango, watermelon, brussels sprouts, cauliflower, cabbage, winter squash, red peppers, raspberries, blueberries, cranberries, and pineapples.

Side Effects

Vitamin C toxicity is very rare, because the body cannot store the vitamin. However, amounts greater than 2,000 mg/day are not recommended because such high doses can lead to stomach upset and diarrhea.

Too little vitamin C can lead to signs and symptoms of deficiency, including:

• Dry and splitting hair
• Gingivitis (inflammation of the gums)
• Bleeding gums
• Rough, dry, scaly skin
• Decreased wound-healing rate
• Easy bruising
• Nosebleeds
• Weakened tooth enamel
• Swollen and painful joints
• Anemia
• Decreased ability to fight infection
• Possible weight gain because of slowed metabolism

A severe form of vitamin C deficiency is known as scurvy, which mainly affects older, malnourished adults.

Recommendations

The best way to get the daily requirement of essential vitamins, including vitamin C, is to eat a balanced dietthat contains a variety of foods from the food guide pyramid.

Vitamin C should be consumed every day because it is not fat-soluble and, therefore, cannot be stored for later use.

The Food and Nutrition Board at the Institute of Medicine recommends the following amounts of vitamin C:

Infants and Children

• 0 - 6 months: 40 milligrams/day (mg/day)
• 7 - 12 months: 50 mg/day
• 1 - 3 years: 15 mg/day
• 4 - 8 years: 25 mg/day
• 9 - 13 years: 45 mg/day

Adolescents

• Girls 14 - 18 years: 65 mg/day
• Boys 14 - 18 years: 75 mg/day

Adults

• Men age 19 and older: 90 mg/day
• Women age 19 year and older: 75 mg/day

Women who are pregnant or breastfeeding and those who smoke need higher amounts. Ask your doctor what is best for you.

Dracula Orchids

Dracula orchids tempt flies by masquerading as mushrooms. Goblin spiders lurk unseen in the world's leaf litter. The natural world is often just as haunting as the macabre costumes worn on city streets, as highlighted by two studies published this year by curators in the Division of Invertebrate Zoology at the American Museum of Natural History, David Grimaldi and Norman Platnick.

 

DRACULA ORCHIDS

According to Grimaldi and colleagues, fruit flies (Drosophilidae) of the genus Zygothrica typically swarm on mushrooms and other rain forest fungi. But one group of orchids in the American tropics takes advantage of their preferences, duping the hapless flies into pollinating them with the scent and appearance of mushrooms. These orchids are from the genus Dracula, named so to keep the spirit of a former name, Masdevallia, when it was realized that there were separate orchid groups.

This Dracula lafleurii is showing successive flowering and umbrella-like flowers.  Credit: L. Endara

"Over 200 years ago, botanists on major Spanish expeditions to Peru named a new orchidMasdevallia because of the flower's similarity to monsterly creatures like dragons and bats," says Lorena Endara of the University of Florida in Gainesville. "Carlyle Luer, who later segregatedDracula from Masdevallia, sees these orchids as little bats flying in the forest since the flower faces down and the triangular sepals and the long sepaline tails display parallel to the ground."

"Some of the flies attracted to Dracula are new species, and I am presently working on descriptions of them," says Grimaldi. "I wanted to call this paper 'Dracula as Lord of the Flies,' but my co-authors convinced me to use the title 'Lord of the Flies: Pollination of Dracula orchids.'"

The paper, published in the orchid journal Lankesteriana, presents over 700 hours of observational data on flowers in Ecuadorian cloud forest where fruit flies were seen mating in (and hence pollinating) Dracula orchids. In addition to Endara and Grimaldi, Bitty Roy of the University of Oregon authored the paper; the research was funded by the National Science Foundation, the National Geographic Society, and other institutions.

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With a little practice and orchid pest information,

orchids can be grown generally free of

serious pests. But in recent years there has been an upsurge

in problems caused by a root-feeding pest called the

orchid snail or bush snail, Zonitoides arboreus (Say).

Description

Adult orchid snails are yellow-brown and about an eighth

of an inch in diameter. The body of the snail is dark grayish-

blue. They damage plants by feeding on the thick, corky

roots that grow from the base of the plant (Fig. 1). Ordinarily

these roots grow down into the media, holding the

plant firmly within the pot. However, plants infested with

snails become unstable. They cannot be sold until the pests

have been controlled and the roots have re-grown. It only

takes two or three adult snails in the medium of a 4-inch

pot to cause serious root damage.

The Orchid Snail as a Pest of Orchids in Hawaii

Robert G. Hollingsworth1 and Kelvin T. Sewake2

1U.S. Pacific Basin Agricultural Research Center, Agricultural Research Service, USDA

2Department of Plant and Environmental Protection Sciences, CTAHR

Pest status

In a 1999 survey of commercial orchid growers in Hawaii,

44% of the 64 respondents reported this snail species as a

pest in their greenhouses, costing them an average of $503

per year in control costs and $5,708 in lost sales during the

previous 12 months (unpublished survey data). Growers

reported damage on nine different types of orchids, particularly

in the genera Oncidium, Dendrobium, Cattleya,

Phalaenopsis, and Vanda. Orchids in the Oncidium alliance

were mentioned most frequently as being susceptible

to attack (42% of the instances reported). The disparity

between the amount of money these growers spent to control

the pest and the value of lost sales indicates the insidious

nature of the damage. In many cases, by the time the

grower discovers the problem, serious damage has already

occurred.

It is not clear why problems with orchid snails are increasing,

because this snail species is not new to Hawaii.

According to Dr. Robert Cowie of the Bishop Museum,

the orchid snail has been present in Hawaii since at least

1928. In its native range (North America and Central

America), this snail is commonly found under the loose,

Figure 1. Two orchid snails near a new root emerging from the

base of an orchid plant. The hollowed-out root (arrow) was

damaged by snails.

Photo by Scott Bauer, USDA Agricultural Research Service.

Figure 2. An orchid snail and eggs on a piece of coir.

MP-1 The Orchid Snail as a Pest of Orchids in Hawaii CTAHR — Aug. 2002

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moist bark of decaying trees, or in decaying wood or vegetable

matter. Pest interception records kept by quarantine

inspectors indicate that potted orchids are the most common

commercial host for this snail. Orchid snails have also

been reported as a pest of sugarcane roots in Louisiana.

The recent increase in snail damage in Hawaii may be

related to the rapid growth of the commercial potted orchid

industry since 1990. Most potted orchid growers use bark

or coir media, which provide a moist environment conducive

to snail growth. Previously in Hawaii most orchid growers

were cut-flower producers and used cinder or basaltic

rock as the growing medium. Some growers have suspected

that purchased bark or coir media may be the source of

their snail problem. However, we were unable to recover

any snails from several types of bark and coir media that

we purchased and tested for the presence of snails. Further,

we discovered that fresh snail eggs allowed to dry for a

week will not hatch, even when re-wetted.

In addition to the damage they cause, snails are a concern

because shipments of potted orchids may be rejected

if snails are found by plant quarantine inspectors. Although

the orchid snail is widely distributed on the mainland United

States and in other parts of the world, this would not necessarily

prevent quarantine inspectors on the mainland from

taking quarantine action if snails were found.

Biology

In laboratory and greenhouse studies, we have discovered

that orchid snails develop slowly, despite their small size.

A snail completes its life cycle in about three months. Adults

lay small white eggs (about 1⁄25 inch in diameter) in clutches

within the pots of orchid plants (Fig. 2). These hatch in

about two weeks. No one has measured how long these

snails live outdoors or under greenhouse conditions. In the

laboratory, orchid snails have lived more than 16 months.

Their shells contain calcium, and laboratory-reared snails

fed lettuce or cabbage grow faster when given supplemental

calcium in the form of crushed oyster shell.

Control

In general, this snail species is difficult to control with

chemicals, and the best method of control is prevention—

sanitation and exclusion. Snails usually come into the

greenhouse with infested plant material and then spread to

other plants. Growers should keep snail-infested plants on

separate benches from plants known to be clean (such as

those from flasks). The supports of greenhouse benches

should be treated to prevent the spread of snails by attaching

copper bands or applying molluscicides. Re-potting

plants into clean media after bare-rooting them is a timeconsuming

but effective method of reducing the pest problem

in extreme cases.

Commercial pesticides registered for slug and snail

control in Hawaii include formulations containing

metaldehyde, iron phosphate (Sluggo®), and methiocarb

(Mesurol®). Although some growers have recommended

dust applications of diatomaceous earth, these proved ineffective

in our tests. We did not do any greenhouse tests

using iron phosphate pellets, but in the laboratory they did

not attract or have an effect on snails.

Orchid snails are susceptible to products containing

metaldehyde and methiocarb. Regardless of the product

used, a single application is unlikely to kill all of the snails.

The key is to use repeated applications at regular intervals

(every three to four weeks) until all the snails have been

killed. Products containing metaldehyde may be more effective

if watering is withheld for a while after treatment.

This is because metaldehyde products cause slugs and snails

to secrete excess mucus, causing their dehydration and

death. Growers must decide for themselves what period of

time water can safely be withheld without risking injury to

the plants.

The effectiveness of pesticide applications can be determined

by removing and searching the planting medium

from a number of orchid plants that were known to be infested

previously. Place the collected shells in a clean jar

with a few drops of water or with a piece of moist paper

towel. Living snails will readily emerge from the shell and

begin moving about. In our studies, the three products that

were most effective against orchid snails were Slug-fest®,

a liquid concentrate containing 25% metaldehyde, Durham®

7.5% metaldehyde granules, and Mesurol®, a wettable powder

containing 75% methiocarb.

Surprisingly, none of the metaldehyde-containing baits

we tested actually attracted snails. Those that had some

effect did so because snails accidentally contacted the baits.

Growers are cautioned that baits containing metaldehyde

products are very attractive and highly toxic to dogs, and

Mesurol is a potent nerve poison and thus is classified as a

restricted-use pesticide.

Disclaimer: Mention of a trade or product name does not imply approval or recommendation of the product to the exclusion of others that

may also be suitable. The description of a pesticide use is not intended as a substitute for restrictions, precautions, and directions given on

the product label. Users of pesticides are responsible for making sure that the intended use is included on the product label and that all

label directions are followed. Neither the University of Hawaii, the United States Department of Agriculture, nor the authors shall be liable

for any damages resulting from the use of or reliance on the information contained here, or from any omissions to this publication.

What is Melanin? why is my skin getting darker? and How can I get Lighter Skin?

How can I get lighter skin? A question we are often asked.

It is said that our skin is the mirror of our inner body. If our body functions well internally, then our skin will look radiant and remain healthy, likewise if the body is not functioning well internally, it will be reflected in the skin.

Internal and external factors can cause the skin to become spotted and loses its moisture and its radiant appearance. To understand why, it is necessary to understand some basic things about skin color and what causes it to change.

There are three main factors which contribute, one way or another, to the actual color of your skin. The first one is melanin, the substance which causes the skin to turn darker in response to sunlight. The second is the carotene which is responsible for the yellowish tint and last, but not least, are the blood vessels which give the skin that pink nuance.

Melanin is produced by cells called melanocytes in the skin and it is triggered by the enzyme responsible for coloring the hair, the eyes and the skin. This enzyme is called tyrosinase. The greater the production of melanin is the darker the skin color will be.

In addition to influencing the color of the skin, melanin also plays the role of absorbing solar rays and protecting the body from the invasive effects of ultraviolet rays.

For effective protection, the amount of melanin increases when the skin is exposed to sun. When melanin is no longer capable of absorbing the solar rays, sunburn occurs.

Mild sunburns usually do not have any long term effects on the skin, as the damaged layers of skin are regenerated and new and healthy skin replaces the damaged ones. Yet, severe sunburns may result in scars and most often in dark patches of skin and brown spots which may remain on your skin your entire life.

Melanin is present in larger quantities in people with dark skin and in lesser quantities in people with light skin. Thus, those people having light skin are more prone to sun burns and dark spots caused by the sun than those with dark skin.

Hormonal imbalances, external factors, such as pollution, wounds and rashes can also increase the amount of melanin in certain portions of the skin, making it darker.

If you want to know more about melanin and about the factors which affect your skin color CLICK HERE for more information. You will learn all you need to know about your skin as well as great techniques which can whiten your skin in a natural and effective way, without any side effects.  

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Skin Whitening Home Remedies

Dark spots, and freckles, and skin-damage - oh my! Looking to lighten your complexion? Every shade of skin is beautiful, but as we grow older our skin tone can change. Freckles may appear, dark spots can arise, and skin may not be as light as it once was. So, if you're still not ready to embrace your dark side, read on for a few natural whitening tips and tricks.

Use Sunblock
One of the easiest ways to stay fair is to use sunblock on a daily basis. Find a moisturizer that includes an SPF of 15 or higher and use it every morning after washing your face. Sunblock not only prevents your skin from getting darker, but also blocks harmful UV rays that can cause cancer and premature aging. Remember your hands when applying sunblock, as they are a prime area for age spots.

Exfoliate
Exfoliating once a week will remove dead skin cells to lighten and brighten your skin. Mix two tablespoons oatmeal and two tablespoons brown sugar with a quarter cup of milk, and stir until a paste forms. Gently scrub your face, rinse, and moisturize.

Make a Mask
A homemade mask is a great way to lighten your skin and a good excuse to kick back on the couch. Try using one once a week. Use one tablespoon of each of the following: sandalwood paste, lemon juice, tomato juice, and cucumber juice. Mix them all together to form a paste. Spread the mixture on your face and wait until it dries. Rinse and moisturize for a natural glow.

Licorice Extract
Licorice extract contains glabridin, a component that acts as a natural skin whitener. Apply a thin layer of the extract morning and evening, after you wash your face and before you moisturize. Licorice extract can be found at any health food store or ordered online. Be sure to store the bottle in a cool, dark place to maintain freshness. Note: test a small amount on the back of your arm before using on your face to be sure you do not have an allergic reaction.

Vitamin C
Vitamin C is a potent inhibitor of Melanin and when used properly has been shown to be a potent skin whitener. It is also an antioxident that adds protection to your skin from the effects of oxidation. 

Remember to love your skin no matter what color it is. It's a part of who you are and that's what makes you beautiful and unique.

 

Orchid Information on Mealybugs

Orchid Information -  Mites on Cultivated Orchids

Orchids

Paul J. Johnson, Ph.D.

Insect Research Collection

Box 2207A, South Dakota State University

Brookings, SD 57007

Last update: 22 November 2008

Yellow speckles or browning of leaves on your orchids? Webbing of silk on various

plant parts and no spiders to be seen? Consider mites as possible culprits. Mites are tiny

creatures related to spiders and ticks, and are not insects. Plant-feeding mites can be

thought of as plant parasites and are often amongst the most serious pests of cultivated

orchids. Common orchid cultural conditions in homes and hobby greenhouses can favor

mites, and the use of pesticides removes natural predators and allows development of

resistant populations.

Sources and Identification

Mite species that are pests on cultivated orchids generally fall

into two main categories, spider mites, and flat mites. The latter

are also called false spider mites, but the name flat mite is

preferred as it is accurately descriptive and avoids confusion

with spider mites. There are other pest species of mites, but

they are generally of less importance.

The most common spider mite recognized as a persistent pest of

orchids is the common two-spotted spider mite (Tetranychus

urticae), but the carmine spider mite (Tetranychus

cinnabarinus) may be an unrecognized pest species in North America. The spider mites

are a yellowish-green and usually with two large dark areas on either side of the body at

about midlength. They are active species that is easily seen wandering the plants. Spider

mites received their name because of the silk webbing that they produce, not because

they may appear like small spiders. The two-spotted is also known by other common

names, including the “red spider mite” because of an orange-red over-wintering form.

However, it is possible that in some cases the red form of the two-spotted may actually be

the carmine spider mite. Both species are global, feed on many kinds of plants

(polyphagous), and are easily transported on many kinds of plants.

Flat mites recognized as pests on orchids are the orchid mite (Tenuipalpus orchidarum),

the phalaenopsis mite (Tenuipalpus pacificus) and the oncidium mite (Brevipalpus

oncidii). Tenuipalpus orchidofilo was described recently and was reported as a pest of

Arundina graminifolia in Brazil, but there are

apparently no reports of this species elsewhere.

Three other species are recorded from orchids,

Brevipalpus phoenicis (red and black mite), B.

californicus (omnivorous mite), and B. russulus,

but these reports are not verified and may

represent misidentifications. Flat mites are

native to tropical and subtropical habitats and

hosts, and are moved globally by the plant

trade. There are probably more species on

orchids, but the taxonomy of tenuipalpid mites

is poor as is accurate information about their occurrence on orchids. Flat mites are

smaller than two-spotted spider mites, difficult to see without magnification, and move

very slowly.

Other mites frequently found associated with orchid culture include predatory mites that

feed upon pest mites. There are many innocuous mite species that feed on fungi,

bacteria, and decaying organic materials. There are also a number of beneficial mites that

are predators on plant-feeding mites, insect pests, and other critters. Oribatid mites that

look like tiny round, dark-colored beetles feed on fungi on plant parts and decaying

organic materials. A large diversity of yellowish to light brown mites are frequent in

potting media and may occasionally be found on plants. These are usually large, >1.0

mm in length and easily seen.

The two-spotted spider mite is probably the most

important mite pest of cultivated orchids in all areas,

but flat mites are very common and are often not

diagnosed properly. Both two-spotted and flat mites

can become problems in greenhouses and homes.

Because of the small size of these mites, and great

similarity among related species, their accurate

identification is difficult and often requires the help of

an experienced entomologist with a high quality

microscope. In general, two-spotted’s and flat’s are

small sized, with two-spotted’s reaching a grand 0.5

mm in length and flat’s reaching a mere 0.3 mm in

length. All of these mites are pale yellowish-green to

orange-red color and often with two or more black areas visible through their

integument. All bear conspicuous pale hairs. Two-spotted spider mites spin networks of

silk webbing that protects their colonies from predators and helps maintain high humidity

near the leaf surface. This webbing is also protective against pesticide sprays. Flat mites

do not spin this webbing.

Typically, mites are always present in low numbers. This makes managing cultural

conditions important for mite control. Mites will readily move between plants, float on

air currents, be introduced on new plants or those brought indoors from the garden, and

the eggs or resting stages may be in potting media. Colonization of your plants by mites

can be done at any time, but severe problems may not show themselves until favorable

environmental conditions are present. In the home and hobby greenhouse spider mites

will readily move to orchids from other plants.

Damage

All of these mites may be found on a wide variety of orchids. In addition, the twospotted

spider mite is known to feed on hundreds of different plant species. The larvae,

nymphs, and the adults all feed by puncturing cell walls and sucking cell contents,

particularly chloroplasts. The killing of individual

cells or groups of cells produces the transparent,

yellow, or tan patchwork of damage that indicates

mite infestation. Feeding may be done on many

plant tissues, but mostly on leaves and buds and can

cause these to drop prematurely. Heavy feeding

produces a patchy chlorotic appearance to leaves,

and portions of or the entire leaf may turn dry and

brown. This damage generally reduces the vigor of

plants and may kill plants. Mites may also transmit

certain viruses.

Flat mites often feed on the upper surfaces of leaves

and this will create a pock-marked appearance from

empty and collapsed leaf cells. This type of damage is particularly easy to see on

infested Phalaenopsis leaves. Flat mite feeding on thin leaves, especially the underside,

is similar to the stippling caused by spider mites, but there is no webbing. Mite damage

is permanent, so it is best to manage mites at low populations than to experience heavy

infestations. Thin or soft-leaved orchids are more susceptible to mite damage than those

with thicker leaves, but no species or variety is immune.

Life Cycle

Both two-spotted spider mites and flat mites have five life stages: egg, larva,

protonymph and deutonymph (or nymphs), and adult. The larva has only six legs, but the

nymphs and adults have eight legs. Eggs are laid by females on the surface of plant

structures and are often hidden in crevices. Eggs and larvae are very tiny and are nearly

impossible to discern without magnification. A good handlens is useful for seeing even

the adults.

Developmental rates of mites are dependent upon temperature. In general, the higher the

temperature the shorter the life cycle. The egg may take upwards of three weeks to hatch

for flat mites, but only 1-2 days for two-spotted spider mites, at standard indoor

temperatures. While larval and nymphal stages usually take 5-6 weeks to reach

adulthood for flat mites, it may take only 1-3 weeks for two-spotted spider mites.

Optimum temperatures for development are 30-32°C (86-90°F). Both kinds of mites

will have many generations per year under favorable conditions. While flat mites may

take 6-9 weeks to complete a generation, the two-spotted spider mite can complete a

generation in as little as 5 days in optimum conditions. Like other orchid pests the

overlapping of generations creates a significant mite management problem.

Management and Control

Pesty mites tend to increase in numbers during “rain-less” periods due to the lack of rain,

fog-drip or other sources of free water on plants. It is the physical presence and force of

impact of water that help keep plant-feeding mite populations low. Spider and flat mites

require high relative humidity and occupy a thin static air layer next to plant integument.

Under `normal' conditions the mites are widely dispersed on and among plants. In dry

conditions, the mites concentrate in the most protected areas in the static air layer next to

the plant and between hairs. Further, the silk spun by spider mites acts as a tent to deflect

air flow and hold humidity close to the plant. Low humidity and lack of free moisture is

also bad for predatory mites and insects, important natural control factors for spider and

flate mites. In-doors and in greenhouses, spider and flat mites become serious problems

during the winter under the combination of reduced overhead watering and absence of

predators, and use of insecticides. In the home, typical gentle misting methods simply

are not effective on mites when dry air is circulating from furnaces and heaters. Overall,

it is a rather delicate balance between high relative humidity, free moisture, a dry air

source, breeziness, temperature, and the presence of predators that keeps mites well

managed.

Two-spotted spider mites and flat mites are small and relatively delicate creatures. The

easiest method for keeping mites under control is to regularly spray, or syringe, the plants

with water. In the home placing your plants in a shower or using a sink sprayer is very

effective. Mites are readily washed from the plants or are damaged by a heavy spray. In

a greenhouse regular spraying and misting is effective.

Biological control of mites is feasible even in small hobby greenhouses. Numerous

predatory insects attack mites, including lacewings, ladybeetles, and wasps. The use of

predatory mites is particularly successful in greenhouses. Most of the predator mites that

are sold by suppliers are from several genera. Phytoseiulus persimilis is a commonly

used and readily available species. Of course, the use of insecticides and miticides when

biological control agents are active is self-defeating, and mite problems can be

exacerbated by use of general insecticides.

Rubbing Alcohol

Light infestations restricted to one or a few plants can usually be treated with household

products. When possible, immediately isolate infested plants from others to prevent the

mites from moving amongst them. Probably the most popular home remedy is to spray

plants with a mixture of isopropyl (rubbing) alcohol and liquid mild dish detergent, such

as Ivory. Do not use other alcohols, such as ethanol or methanol, as these will penetrate

the plant tissues and cause considerable damage! The concentration of the isopropyl

seems to make little difference, the common 70% concentration available in stores is

satisfactory. Alcohol treatment is effective against all the life stages of mites, except

eggs.

A potential problem with alcohol treatment is the rapid evaporation of alcohol causing cooling of plant

tissues. Especially with air movement that increases evaporative cooling, this chilling may over-cool tissues

and create zones of dead cells that can become necrotic with bacterial or fungal infection. On warm days

or in a breeze consider blotting residual alcohol with a tissue instead of permitting it to evaporate off the

plant. Alcohol and detergent solutions can also damage delicate buds and blooms, so caution is urged for

prized plants.

Repotting is not very effective against mites. However, with an extreme infestation it

may be worth repotting a plant as eggs and resting adults may be in the growing media.

Horticultural oil, neem oil, mineral oil, and insecticidal soaps are readily available,

inexpensive, and effective against mites. Oil solutions smother the mites so a complete

coverage of all sprayed plants is essential. These oils are mixed with water and usually a

plant-safe detergent or commercial spreader-sticker should be used for enhancing the

effectiveness of the oil. The main caution with these oil solutions is that they should

never be applied to plants on hot days (>85ºF/29ºC) or in direct sunlight, as to prevent

burning of tissues. Leave the plant in shade until the application has dried. Some plants

or parts, such as buds and blooms, are sensitive to oils so due care and consideration is

urged.

Insecticidal soaps are usually solutions of a synthetic pyrethrin and potassium salts of

fatty acids, otherwise known as soaps. Pyrethrins are synthetic analogs of pyrethrum, the

natural extract from certain Asteraceae, particularly certain species of Chrysanthemum.

Caution is urged with so-called “safe” insecticidal soaps as some plants are sensitive,

particularly tender new tissues. Piperonyl butoxide is a common enhancer of pyrethrins

but can cause allergies in some people and may affect plants, too. Some non-orchid

ornamentals will drop leaves and abort flowers when sprayed with insecticidal soaps, so

again caution is urged with prized orchids.

Because the life cycle of mites is so short and there are overlapping of generations, to

bring a serious problem under control you may need to do treatments every 1-3 weeks.

The time period between control efforts will depend upon the growing conditions,

especially temperature: greater frequency in a warm greenhouse, less inside a house. As

with any pest, persistence is a key to success and correlating the control method to the

mite species is important for effective management. Cultural conditions are a key to

managing mite populations.

Insecticides and Acaricides

Persistent populations of mite or infestation in many plants usually demand the need for

synthetic pesticides. Mites are unrelated to insects and most common insecticides are not

effective against mites. Pesticides designed for mite control are called miticides or

acaricides. There are few miticides specifically registered for use on orchids, but there

are many miticides for ornamental plants in general and several are available as

inexpensive home-and-garden solutions. Miticide formulations not labeled for

ornamental plants are often mixed with solvents that aide in the application of the active

ingredient for specific purposes. These solvents, not necessarily the miticide itself, often

produce phytotoxicity and may seriously damage or kill plants. Thus, never use any

chemical that is not specifically labeled for ornamental plants.

Common insecticides are not effective against mites, though some do have some weak

suppressive action, but will kill mite predators. Acephate (Orthene), malathion, and

disulfoton (Di-syston) are labeled for mites but are not very effective. Resistance by

mites to pesticides is a serious problem and is in part due to the excessive use and weak

action from common insecticides. Dimethoate, diazinon, and chlorpyrifos were recently

removed from the market in the U.S. for non-commercial applications due to excessive

and careless use causing some serious health and environmental problems.

There are many miticides available for ornamental plants, but some are not tested on

orchids, and others are generally too expensive or otherwise not readily available for the

small-collection grower. Effective miticides for ornamental use include avermectin

(Avid), bifenthrin (Talstar), dienochlor (Pentac), fenbutatin-oxide (Vendex), and

fluvalinate (Mavrik). Fenbutatin-oxide is mixed with acephate and sold in home-andgarden

formulations. Avermectin is probably the least toxic of these chemicals to people

and pets.

Of course, always follow label directions and never exceed the minimum recommended

concentration given in mixing directions! Recommended solutions are based on

extensive testing for selected pests and plants. Orchids are sensitive to many chemicals,

particularly under direct sunlight or high heat, and while certain species may not react to

a given formulation others may, so your own testing on plants before general application

is recommended.

Home orchid keepers that need to apply miticides during inclement weather need special

care for applications. If you cannot spray out of doors, place your plant(s) inside a large

plastic bag (remove the bag after the spray has settled!) and let the plant ventilate where

the fumes will not be wafted around the house or work area.

Final Considerations

Heavy infestations of mites, especially on many plants may require extensive control

methods. Since the damage done by mites is permanent, constant management of the

population more effective than control of a major infestation. On the extreme side if you

have a plant showing signs of severe change or general decline from mites you may have

to seriously consider destroying that plant, as the likelihood of rejuvenating that plant

may not justify the expense and effort of continued treatments. Too, destruction of a sick

plant can be used to justify the purchase of a new and healthier plant!

If you are battling mites for long periods of time (e.g., >2 months) and have been using

the same miticide then you likely developed a resistant population of mites. Remember

the short generation times of mites. The best resolution to this is to change methods and

chemicals frequently; that is do not use the same chemical mix more than 3-4 times

sequentially. After isolating infested plants give them a thorough application of

something different from what you have been using. Resistance is not a problem with

alcohol, oils, and soaps as these suffocate or dessicate the mites.

Generally, never use a miticide not labeled for ornamental plants. Be thorough.

Prophylactic use of miticides is tempting but does little good as it is a waste of chemical

and money, and allows resistant mites to develop.

Orchid growers with an entomological penchant and desiring detailed information are

referred to the excellent book Mites of Greenhouses: identification, biology and control,

by Zhi-Qiang Zhang (2003), CABI Publishing, Oxon (UK) and Cambridge (USA), ISBN

0 85199 590 X.

Image Credits: False spider mite and spider mite images are from the North Carolina Cooperative Extension Service and USDA-ARS,

respectively. Other images are those of the author.

orchid problems MEaly Bugs

Orchid problems Mealybugs on Orchids

Paul J. Johnson, Ph.D.

Insect Research Collection

Box 2207A, South Dakota State University

Brookings, SD 57007

Updated: 25 February 2009

Mealybugs are serious pests of orchids and next to scale insects are probably the most

difficult to control pests of orchids in homes and greenhouses. Most definitely, they need

to be dealt with immediately upon discovery. The damage done to plants by mealybugs is

considerable, causing a loss of vigor and a weakening and loss of leaves, buds, and

flowers through their feeding. In addition, mealybugs create copious amounts of

honeydew which make plant parts sticky, attracts ants, and provides a substrate for sooty

mold. Though some mealybugs vector plant viruses apparently no orchid viruses are

known to be transmitted by these insects. Mealybugs are not particular about their host

and probably all species of orchids are susceptible to mealybugs, especially when

cultivated.

Identification

Nearly 300 species of mealybugs are known from

Canada and the United States. Fortunately, only a few

species are common or serious pests of orchids.

Mealybugs are classified in the family

Pseudococcidae, and are closely related to the scale

insects. In fact, mealybugs can be thought of as a kind

of soft scale that does not form the protective cover

that most scales produce for protection. The pest

species are in the genera Pseudococcus, Planococcus, Phenacoccus, and Dysmicoccus.

Immature to adult mealybugs may measure 0.5-8.0 mm in body length. All of the known

orchid feeding species are coated with a waxy secretion that hides the body of these

insects. The more common species of these odd insects that infest orchids are

immediately recognized in the adult stage by the white, yellowish-white, whitish-grey, or

pale pink to pale blue in color coating. The body is oval and the sides of the body have

short waxy filaments and there may be 2-4 short to long filaments on the posterior end of

the body. These filaments sometimes give the impression of numerous legs.

Mealybugs can be found on all plant parts, but especially roots, rhizomes, pseudobulbs,

and the underside of leaves. They are adept at hiding on roots and rhizomes deep in the

potting media, in crevices and under sheaths. Unlike scales, mealybugs wander in search

of feeding places and will leave plants, be sure to check for them in cracks and in joints

on benches, under lips of pots and trays, and other hiding places. The immatures are

small, and white to yellowish or pale pink. Hatchling nymphs, or crawlers, are not easily

seen without a magnifier and hide under cover, but older nymphs appear like diminutive

adults.

Orchids become infested with mealybugs in some combination of three methods:

purchase of an infested plant, movement from infested to un-infested plants that are in

contact with each other, and windblown colonization. Mealybugs are active and will

crawl from one plant to another, pot to pot, and across benches. Mealybugs will leave

plants and hide under rims of pots and trays, in bench crevices, and even drop from

overhead plants. Spread of crawlers can occur both indoors and outdoors by floating on

breezes or air currents produced by circulating and heater fans. The occurrence of

infestation hotspots may be due to crawlers settling on plants where the air currents are

the weakest. Similar effects are found with aphids, scales, and spider mites.

The identification of mealybugs is difficult and often requires the services of a taxonomic

entomologist specializing on these insects. Because of this difficulty, accurate

information on the identification and biology of species that may infest orchids is much

poorer than one would hope. Undoubtedly, all the orchid infesting species were tropical

or subtropical in origin, but the most problematic species have adapted to indoor life and

may feed on hundreds of species of ornamental plants other than orchids.

According to identification records kept by the

Systematic Entomology Laboratory, U.S. Dept. of

Agriculture, 39 species of mealybug are reported from

orchids. Fortunately, only a few species are problematic

in Canada and the United States. However, it is very

easy for any of these species to be transported unseen.

Consequently, extreme caution and due care is urged to

anyone transporting orchids between states or countries.

In most of Canada and the United States, the longtailed

mealybug (Pseudococcus longispinus) is probably the

most common and problematic species on orchids,

particularly in homes and greenhouses. This is also the

most easily recognized species because of a pair of very

long filaments on the posterior of the body.

In California the longtailed is very common. However, five additional orchid feeding

species are known: orchid mealybug (Pseudococcus microcirculus), imported mealybug

(Pseudococcus importatus), obscure mealybug (Pseudococcus obscurus), pineapple

mealybug (Dysmicoccus brevipes), and the solanum mealybug (Phenacoccus solani).

Apparently, the orchid mealybug is the most problematic species in California,

particularly in greenhouses.

In Hawaii the longtailed and pineapple mealybugs

are common on orchids. In addition there is the

dendrobium mealybug (Pseudococcus

dendrobiorum), Jack Beardsley’s mealybug

(Pseudococcus jackbeardsleyi), and the grape

mealybug (Pseudococcus maritimus).

Life Cycle

Mealybugs have a three-stage life history: egg, larva (nymph or crawler), and adult. Eggs

are laid within a waxy coated egg sac produced by the female. The eggs hatch after about

a 10 days into the mobile nymphs, the crawlers, that appear as diminutive adults. The

crawlers are the most active stage that can move between plants and will develop through

several growth periods before becoming adults. Adults of most species are also active.

Thus, unlike scales where the crawler finds a suitable site for feeding and remains fixed,

mealybugs will move about to find feeding sites. However, the most common pest

species is the longtailed mealybug and it is parthenogenetic; no males are known of this

species.

Male mealybugs do little feeding and only in their youngest crawler stages. Mature males

are small (1.5-2.5 mm) winged creatures whose primary function is to mate, and then

die. Females and immatures do not fly, but they will crawl off of the plant and migrate

thoughout a growing area.

In temperate regions, mealybugs usually have only one or two generations per season. In

a warm greenhouse or indoors there may be upwards of 8 overlapping generations per

year. Out-of-doors in cold climates, cold-tolerant species of mealybugs hide in protected

places, such as under tree bark, among roots, and in compost.

Management

Outdoor mealybugs are vulnerable to a variety of parasitic and predatory insects,

including wasps, brown and green lacewings, and lady beetles. Weather, especially

heavy rains, also help to keep mealybug populations low. Indoors, mealybug

management is difficult because of their propensity to move into the potting medium and

feed on roots, or for the crawlers to work their way into tight places. Repeated

application of any treatment is required to kill the immatures, and treatments are at their

greatest effectiveness against the small crawlers. Hand removal is effective only for the

obvious adults and larger nymphs. All control efforts must begin immediately following

discovery. Even light infestations

restricted to one or a few plants can

explode rapidly and necessitate chemical

methods. When possible, immediately

isolate infested plants from others to

prevent the mealybugs from moving

amongst them. Also, check the lips and

cracks of pots, trays, and benches because

females will wander and leave the plant to find

hiding places. If plants other than orchids are

grown, check those also as they may be a source of infestation.

Because the life cycle of mealybugs can be so short combined with the overlapping of

generations, you will need to do a treatment every 10-14 days in order to bring a serious

problem under control. Because mealybugs are such a problem there are few effective

"home remedies" available. To deal with an established infestation, the use of an

insecticide will likely be necessary. Be aware that non-insecticidal treatments are often

not very effective for elimination of mealybugs without diligent application and followup

treatments.

Rubbing Alcohol

Probably the most popular home remedy against mealybugs is to swab and daub plants

with a cotton-tipped swab or ball of cotton dipped in isopropyl (rubbing) alcohol. Do not

use other alcohols, such as ethanol or methanol, that can penetrate the plant tissues and

cause considerable damage! The common 70% isopropyl available in stores is

satisfactory. On hard-leaved plants, gentle rubbing with the fingers, a cotton ball, cottontipped

swab, or a soft infants toothbrush is effective. Remove all mealybugs, large and

small. Afterwards, you will still need to repeat the alcohol treatment to remove the tiny

yellowish spots which are the recently hatched crawlers. Pay particular attention to the

folds, crotches, branch bases, midrib areas, and roots. Spraying the alcohol with a

misting bottle or small pump sprayer is effective, but dribbling alcohol into tight areas is

necessary. To avoid get a spray solution on window-sills, table tops, furniture, non-target

plants, etc., move the plant(s) to a large sink, bathtub, or shower stall, then move them

back to the growing area when they dry.

Many home growers will mix with alcohol a small amount of mild liquid dish detergent,

and sometimes mineral oil, neem oil, or horticultural oil. Vegetable oils will work, too,

but in sunlight they can turn rancid quickly, and become smelly and lose effectiveness.

One recipe for a 1.5 liter spray bottle is to mix a 50:50 solution of isopropyl and water,

with a few drops to about a teaspoon of liquid soap to act as a spreader, and a teaspoon of

one of the oils. But, it seems that every grower has their own proportions of these

ingredients, none of which seem to work significantly better than another. Caution is

urged, however, as excessive amounts or too strong of a detergent, or use of an ammoniabased

chemical cleaner may damage your plants, particularly buds and flowers. This is

true of dish-soaps and household detergents that could remove natural protective waxes

from plant tissues. Also, spraying of alcohol is not always effective against eggs which

are often well hidden, hence the need for thoroughness and repetition.

Repotting

Even a light to moderate infestation of mealybugs should be of concern. These

insects like to move into the potting media and feed on roots, or move off of the

plant to find hiding places to lay eggs. Unless the roots are checked and the

media changed, removal of mealybugs from only the upper plant portions is not

a guarantee of success. The potting medium can harbor eggs and crawlers, so

dispose of it in a compost pile or in the garbage. When repotting, a close

inspection, and if necessary a very gentle cleaning and spraying of the roots

before repotting is essential.

Oils and Soaps

Horticultural oil, neem oil, mineral oil, and insecticidal soaps are effective for

mealybug suppression. The oils and soaps are often regarded as "organic" or

non-chemical methods, but this is a misconception or an extremely broad and

nearly meaningless concept of "organic." Indeed, neem oil is extracted from

the neem tree, but horticultural oils and mineral oil are petroleum distillates.

Likewise, insecticidal soaps are a solution of synthetic pyrethroids mixed with

a mild detergent that is made from petroleum products. However, all of these

solutions are generally considered safer for humans, pets, and plants than usual

insecticides. None provide absolute control over mealybugs, but frequent use

during the presence of crawlers can serve to reduce their populations

dramatically.

Horticultural, mineral, or neem oil solutions smother the insects, so complete

coverage of all sprayed plants is essential. These oils are mixed with water and

usually a plant-safe detergent for enhancing the spreading and sticking of the

oil. The main caution with these oil solutions is that they should never be

applied to plants on hot days (>85° F) or in direct sunlight, as to prevent

burning of tissues. Leave the plant in shade until the application has dried.

Unpublished anecdotes suggest that the flowers of some orchids are sensitive to

neem oil, such as species of Miltonia and Masdevallia.

Insecticidal soaps are usually solutions of a synthetic pyrethrin and a plant-safe

detergent. As with oils the detergent acts as a surfactant and spreader for dispersing the

pyrethrin evenly, and as a mild caustic against the insects. Also, to prevent sunburning

apply the chemical and allow it to dry in shade. Pyrethrins are synthetic analogs of

pyrethrum, the natural extract from certain Asteraceae. Caution should be urged with

so-called "safe" insecticidal soaps as some plants are sensitive, particularly

tender new tissues. Some non-orchid ornamentals will drop leaves and abort

flowers when sprayed with insecticidal soaps, so caution is urged with prized

orchids.

Insecticides

Persistent populations of

mealybugs or infestation in many

plants may demand the need for

use of synthetic insecticides.

There are several common,

inexpensive, home-and-garden use

pesticides labeled for ornamental

plants. Insecticide formulations

not labeled for ornamental plants

are often mixed with solvents that

aide in the application of the active ingredient for specific purposes. These

solvents, not necessarily the insecticide itself, often produce phytotoxicity and

may seriously damage or kill plants. Thus, never use any insecticide that is not

specifically labeled for ornamental plants. Some of the more available and effective

insecticides that come in various brand names are acephate (e.g., orthene), malathion,

carbaryl, and diazinon. Pyrethrins and rotenone have limited effectiveness. Of course,

always follow label directions and never exceed the minimum recommended

concentration given in mixing directions! Recommended solutions are based on

extensive testing for selected pests and plants. Orchids are tough plants, but are sensitive

to many chemicals, particularly under direct sunlight or high heat, and while certain

species may not react to a given formulation others may, so testing is justifiable.

Some insecticides are occasionally discontinued for use because of some

discovered hazard. For example, Cygon used to be available, but it no longer

recommended and labeled for orchids because it will damage many plants,

especially the buds and flowers, and is extremely hazardous to use. Although

most insecticides with discontinued labels are legally allowed to be "used up",

it may be best to dispose of such chemicals rather than continue their use and

risk damage or loss of plants, or increase your own health hazard.

Most home orchid keepers and growers in northern states that need to apply insecticides

during inclement weather need special care for applications. If you cannot spray out of

doors, place your plant(s) inside a large plastic bag (remove the bag after the spray has

settled!) and let the plant ventilate where the fumes will not be wafted around the house

or work area. Again, you may have to consider removing the potting medium, spraying

the plant, and repotting it with new media in a clean pot when the spray has dried.

Growth Regulators and Chitin Inhibitors

These classes of insecticides have great potential for use in orchid pest

management. Growth regulators are relatively expensive, but the cost per

application is less than botanical oils.

Kinoprene (tradename = Enstar II) is a synthetic form of juvenile hormone which is

highly important in insects at critical stages of their metamorphosis. The use of

kinoprene interrupts the normal development of the insects, including mealybugs, scales,

aphids, and whiteflies. This insect hormone appears safe for humans and pets under

usual use precautions. Experience on its use in greenhouses and home collections

suggest that this may be the best new generation pesticide for controlling many orchid

pests, including mealybugs.

Bifenthrin and other growth regulators are also available for use on ornamentals, but little

information is available for orchids. Some of these new chemicals are very effective but

are also highly regulated and may not be available in some states for non-commercial

uses.

Azadirachtin (tradenames = Azatin and Neemazad) is a plant derived chemical that is a

chitin inhibitor. Chitin is a primary compound used by insects when developing their

integument, or exoskeleton. Azadirachtin reduces the insects’ ability to properly develop

its integument and causes mortality through incomplete development. There is little

information available on this chemical for use on orchids, but it is available on a wide

variety of ornamentals, is labeled for greenhouse applications, but may be too expensive

for most home greenhouse uses.

Biological Control

There are many parasitic wasps and various predatory insects that feed on

mealybugs outdoors, but these

species are rarely of value in a

small greenhouse or in the home.

Usually for the small collection

orchid keeper the use of biological

control agents in general is very

limited or not effective. However,

the keeper of many plants in a large

greenhouse or a commercial

grower may wish to consider the

use of one or more parasitic or

predatory insects to help keep mealybugs under control. As in all biological

control efforts eradication is not possible. Also, anyone wishing to use

biological control agents needs to balance their use with proper timing or avoid

the use of insecticides so as not to kill the beneficial insects.

Biological control agents that are available commercially include a variety of

tiny parasitic wasps, brown lacewings, green lacewings, and lady beetles.

Montrouzier’s lady beetle, or mealybug destroyer, Cryptolaemus montrouzieri,

is highly effective for control of mealybugs in greenhouses.

Final Considerations

Heavy infestations of mealybugs, especially on many plants, may require

severe control methods using insecticides. On the extreme side if you have a

plant showing signs of decline from infestation you may have to seriously

consider destroying that plant, as the low likelihood of rejuvenating that plant

may not justify the expense and effort of continued treatments. Too, destruction

of a sick plant can be used to justify the purchase of a new and healthier plant!

If you are battling mealybugs for long periods of time (e.g., >9 months) and

have been using the same insecticidal control method then you probably

developed a resistant population. The best resolution to this is to change

methods and chemicals occasionally; that is, do not use the same chemical mix

more than 3-4 times sequentially. After isolating infested plants give them a

thorough application of something different from what you have been using.

For example, if you used insecticide then switch to an oil, soap, or different

insecticide. Resistance is not generally a problem with growth regulators, such

as kinoprene.

Generally, never use an insecticide not labeled for ornamental plants.

Whenever using oils, soaps, and insecticides, be thorough, change formulations

frequently, and do not use less than the minimum concentration of mixture, or

more than normally recommended. Too little of a chemical enhances

resistance, while too high of a concentration may damage the plant. Unless you

are a commercial grower rotating mixtures of chemicals do not use chemicals

prophylactically, that is do not routinely use chemicals as a preventative as it is

a waste of chemical (and money!) and such use allows resistant mealybugs to

develop. Finally, keep up the manual removal of all mealybugs, if possible.

Mealybugs are an excellent example of pests that are easily transported and

create tremendous problems. Although most orchid keepers in North America

obtain their plants from conscientious growers in either Canada or the U.S.,

many persons do purchase plants while traveling, in exchange from friends, or

from questionable sources. Everyone needs to be aware of the great potential

of inadvertently dispersing species to new areas, particularly from international

originations. There cannot be enough stress placed on the recommendation that

all plants come from a reputable and quality grower, and are clean of pests.