Paul J. Johnson, Ph.D.
Insect Research Collection, South Dakota State University, Brookings, SD 57007
Aphids are among the most obnoxious of orchid pests. These insects are global and orchid feeding species
are problematic in tropical growing areas as well as in commercial and hobby greenhouses in temperate
regions. Rabasse and Wyatt (1985) ranked aphids as one of three most serious greenhouse pests, along
with spider mites and whiteflies. These pernicious insects can
show themselves on orchids year-around in warm climates, but
seem to be mostly autumn and winter problems in temperate
regions. Like most other orchid pests the most common routes
into plant collections is through either the acquisition of
an infested plant or the movement of plants from outdoors to
indoors. However, certain reproductive stages of pest species do
fly and they will move to orchids from other plants quite readily.
Because of their propensity for rapid reproduction any action
against aphids should be completed quickly while their
populations are still small.
An aphid infestation is often detected by an accumulation
of pale-tan colored “skins” that fall beneath the developing
colony. These “skins” are the shed integument from the
growing and molting immature aphids. All of the common pest
species of aphid also secrete honeydew, a feeding by-product
exuded by the aphid and composed of concentrated
plant fluids, and is rich in carbohydrates. This honeydew
drips and accumulates beneath the aphid colony. Because of the
carbohydrates honeydew is attractive to ants, flies, bees, other insects including beneficial species, and
sooty mold. Some species of ant will herd and protect from parasites and predators certain species of aphid
to maintain a supply of honeydew.
On orchids aphids are found feeding on the buds and flowers, but also on other succulent new and growing
tissues such as leaves, sheaths, and the rachis, peduncles, sepals and petals of inflorescences. Aphids have
sucking mouthparts that are inserted between, into, or through cells. Actual feeding is by extraction of
phloem fluids. Plant damage is done by their mouthparts through repeated insertion and probing as well as
fluid removal. Dead tissue zones and distortions develop as new tissues grow around the damaged area.
Feeding on leaves and stems debilitates the plant and causes generalized yellowing. Feeding on buds and
opening blooms creates distortions or death and drying of tissues. Infested blooms distort and decline
rapidly, thus aphids significantly shorten a bloom period.
Many aphid species vector plant viruses. However, of 27 plant viruses reported from orchids only six are
vectored by aphids (Lawson 2002) and these can be vectored otherwise. Not all orchid viruses may be
vectored by aphids. For example, in a series of experiments Namba and Ishii (1971) were unable to
confirm that the Cymbidium or Odontoglossum mosaic viruses were vectored by the fringed orchid aphid.
Rather, mechanical transmission of viruses between plants remains the primary concern for growers. In
California, Raabe et al. (2002) note that for Cymbidium and other orchids only Bar mottle virus was
transmitted by aphids, the green peach aphid. Nevertheless, aphid transmission of cucumber mosaic, turnip
mosaic, and bean yellow mosaic, and other viruses to orchids should be a concern to breeders and
production growers.
APHID IDENTIFICATION
With nearly 4500 species of aphid and more than 80 species known as crop and
ornamentals pests worldwide, aphids can be a daunting group of insects to study. Even
restricting our consideration to the dozen or so species that most commonly show
themselves on ornamentals and do or may feed on orchids in the home or greenhouse, it
can be difficult to identify the
species without assistance
from an entomologist. For the
most part the common species
share characteristics that make
them easily recognized as a
group, and management and
control methods are similar.
However, for management and
control practices for most
growers it is essential to have
familiarity with their life
histories. As an example, the
two most common greenhouse pest aphids, the melon aphid and the green peach aphid,
are variably susceptible to pyrethroid sprays and occupy plants differently.
Consequently, refined and specific management protocols increasingly become
dependent upon accurate identification of aphid species.
In general, the pest species of aphids of concern to orchidists come in various shades of
green, from light yellow-green to dark blue-green. Most aphids seen in the home are
wingless, but as the colony density increases winged individuals will develop and migrate
among plants to found new colonies. Greenhouse populations will have plenty of both
winged and apterous forms. As insects, aphids have only six legs and a pair of antennae,
the mouthparts are formed into a set of thin piercing stylets, the body is a pear-shaped
ovoid, and pest aphids are immediately recognizable by the presence of a pair of short
tubes (siphunculi or cornicles) protruding from the posterior upper portion of their
abdomen. As noted, they have sucking mouthparts, so they do not chew.
In an important
early study
Pritchard (1949)
recorded 24 species
of aphid as pests in
California
greenhouses, but
only a few species
occur on orchids.
Two of the more
commonly reported
species from
cultivated orchids are the green peach aphid (Myzus persicae) and the cotton aphid or
melon aphid (Aphis gossypii). The lily or arum aphid (Aulacorthum circumflexum) was
reported from orchids in Connecticut (Anon., undated). The University of Hawaii
Extension Service Crop Knowledge Master website (http://www.extento.hawaii.edu) lists
the orchid aphid (Sitobion luteum as Macrosiphum luteum) and the fringed orchid aphid
(Cerataphis orchidearum) as the main aphid pests on orchids in Hawaii. These latter two
species are distributed widely in the tropics, and may be in temperate region greenhouses,
having disseminated on plants. Worldwide, Blackman and Eastop (2000) recorded seven
species of aphid from orchids: Aulocorthum solani, A. dendrobii, A. circumflexum,
Sitobion anselliae, S. indicum, S. luteum, and Cerataphis orchidearum.
Additional species may be pests as well but no comprehensive survey of aphids as orchid
pests is available. Also, aphid taxonomy has improved considerably in the last 20 years
so that aphid identifications of the past may be unreliable.
LIFE HISTORY
Among the most interesting aspects of aphids is the peculiarity of their ecology. In
temperate regions many common aphids switch between primary host plants (such as
trees or shrubs) and secondary host plants (grasses and forbs), and switch between
reproductive modes. These habits occur frequently in native aphid species on natural
hosts in temperate regions, as both the host and reproductive switching is a response to
seasonal environmental changes and plant phenology. However, most species of aphid
that are pests of orchids, especially in greenhouses and indoor growing situations, are
weedy species and do not fit these stereotypes. Too, the common pest aphid species outof-
doors in warm climates will
behave as if in a greenhouse
(Blackman and Eastop, 2000).
Typically, aphids have six life
stages: egg or embryo, four
nymphal instars, and adult. Birth
to reproductive adult may take a
few as 7 days in some species.
Depending upon the species and
environmental conditions,
especially temperature, there may
be 15-40 generations per year. Of
the two main pest species, the
green peach aphid reproduces
faster at temperatures in the low to mid 70’s F, while the melon aphid prefers mid to high
70’s F. Reproductively, different species of aphids have some variation of the basic
pattern of alternating between normal sexual reproduction and parthenogenesis, or
reproduction without fertilization of eggs. Males of many species are unknown.
Parthenogenetic populations of aphids are normal in greenhouses. The pest species of
aphids also have generational telescoping, which is the phenomenon where the mother
aphid is carrying both her daughter and grand-daughter embryos. It is these traits of
parthenogenesis and generational telescoping that allows for the rapid population grow of
aphids. Eggs are not laid in greenhouse populations. As each population of aphid
increases in numbers of insects then crowding will induce development of winged
females that will fly to new hosts. Obviously, with no males and no eggs, the continuous
reproduction and population growth is important to consider for management and control
decisions.
Aphids prefer the soft and succulent new growth of plants. An excessive use of nitrogen
and subsequent growth of soft plant tissues will encourage aphid populations. Aphids are
particularly troublesome when there are weeds or other plants that may be sources of
aphids moving onto orchids. Although most aphids are host specific, the green peach
aphid and the melon aphid are highly polyphagous, feeding on a wide variety of plants.
MANAGEMENT AND CONTROL
Aphids are controlled most effectively through good management of your growing
environment. And both chemical and biological control methods are available for
successful control in a wide variety of growing situations. It is self-evident that a
familiarity with basic aphid biology is important for achieving satisfactory aphid
management or control.
Many hobbiests prefer the use of chemicals that do not fit the traditional concept of a
pesticide. Yet, there is a decided lack of evidence on the universal value of home
remedies based on “household” chemicals for pest control. Expectations of home-based
growers seem focused on perceptions involving ease of use, ready availability,
comparable pest controllability, and reduced toxicity in relation to pesticides. An often
used term is “organic”, but this is a badly misunderstood and misused term, particularly
since most of the home remedies use chemicals that are manufactured and as toxic as
pesticides. Further, the efficacy of home remedies is in doubt because of the tremendous
variability of concoctions and an absence of reliable and unbiased assessments. Ellis and
Bradley (1996) provide a good basic introduction to organic pest control.
Pesticides remain important tools in any grower’s management and control options. In
general, they are effective and inexpensive for the result gained. However, there are
serious health problems when used in a cavalier manner, are general environmental
hazards when not used or disposed of properly, may damage the plants, and their overuse
quickly produces resistant aphid populations. The pest control needs of a grower of a few
plants in the home are considerably different from those of a grower that is selling
plants. It seems that the majority of home orchid gardeners are intent on eradication. In
contrast, large commercial growers seek the more cost efficient management techniques,
yet require pest-free plants for sale. Small and middling sized commercial growers fit
someone in-between these extremes on all factors, including pest control. Evidently, not
all pest control methods are satisfactory for all growing situations, and this is an
important consideration when choosing management and control methods for aphids.
CONTROL METHODS
Sticky traps will capture the winged, or alate, aphids. Though normally used for monitoring orchid pests
the inherent action of the trap does remove some of the pests. Use the standard bright yellow sticky cards
that mimic and exaggerate the light reflectance of leaves. Housefly sticky strips will work, too, but are not
as attractive to aphids. The cards or strips should be replaced every month or two as dust, water, and
captured insects will reduce the effectiveness of the sticky material. Do not use yellow sticky traps when
releasing biological control agents, unless you wish to remove these insects as well.
Isopropyl alcohol is readily available as rubbing alcohol in cosmetic and health areas at markets and
pharmacies. Isopropyl is normally sold as a 70% solution and this may be diluted considerably for use
against insects. A dilution to 35% with 2-3 drops of a mild dishwashing detergent per liter/quart of solution
is effective against many insects, including aphids.
The orchid hobbiest should not expect isopropyl alcohol to eliminate an aphid infestation. Adult aphids
may not be killed by the alcohol solution and remaining adults will regenerate the infestation. However,
when combined with mechanical removal of the insects, rubbing alcohol is very useful in small collections
where only one or a few plants may be infestated.
Caution is urged in the use of isopropyl, with or without detergents or soaps. Although the foliage of most
orchids is seemly tolerant of such solutions, the flowers may not be so tolerant. Particular care should be
taken with thin-leaved orchids, especially members of the Oncidiae whose blooms seem sensitive to
isopropyl and detergents. For example, blooms of Oncidium species will darken, dry, and senesce quickly
from an isopropyl application. Floral or foliar damage from alcohol is often delayed, occurring several to
many days after application. Application during lower temperatures and sunlight conditions is
recommended to enhance effectiveness and avoid damage from rapid evaporative cooling or sunburn.
Diatomaceous Earth is moderately effective for aphid control when dusted on plants. The sharp edges of
the fossilized diatoms irritate and cut the membranes of the insects and they dehydrate. However,
diatomaceous earth is not effective when wet and it readily washes from the plant.
Oils come in a variety of light molecular weight, narrow range or horticultural quality of many sorts that
are suitable for pest control on orchids. Horticultural oils are generally highly refined mineral oils and
work well. Neem and common vegetable oils are also effective, but vegetable oils often become rancid
after application. Though this may not harm the orchid, it often smells foul if the plants do not receive a
regular foliar irrigation. Garlic, citrus, and capsaicin oils also have insecticidal effects on aphids, but these
should be used cautiously around pets. All oils control aphids and other pests by coating the insect,
plugging their respiratory spiracles, and killing them by suffocation. Thus, the choice of oil makes little
difference, but the application method and frequency does matter.
Oils should be mixed with water and a few drops of liquid detergent, the latter of which acts as an
emulsifier. The oil must be allowed to spread over the plant and insects/mites for effective control. To
avoid damage to the plants do not apply oils in full sun, when temperatures exceed 85°F, when humidity
exceeds 90% for more than 48 hours, or on open blooms. All oils must be used on a regular basis and
every 10-14 days, depending upon pest and environmental conditions.
Insecticidal Soaps and Detergents. Technically, soaps are highly alkaline potassium salts of fatty acids,
while detergents are synthetic compounds that have similar chemical activity. However, soaps react with
alkaline compounds containing sodium, potassium calcium, or magnesium, while detergents are relatively
neutral and do not form the same reactions in hard water.
Insecticidal soaps are specifically formulated to be plant safe as well as effective and efficient agents for
killing and controlling aphids and other orchid pests, particularly with home environments and small
greenhouses. They are relatively safe, with low toxicity to people and pets, easy to apply, and generally
lack the noxious fumes of other insecticides. However, they are only effective in their wet condition, not
when dry.
Insecticidal soaps that also have synthetic pyrethrins included in the formula will usually also have
piperonyl butoxide as an enhancing agent. Some people are highly allergic to piperonyl butoxide and there
is some evidence of phytotoxicity. Too, repeated applications of insecticidals soaps during a short period
of time can have phytotoxicity problems, so some caution is urged to avoid excessive use. As with other
pesticides do not apply insecticidal soaps in hot weather, high humidity, or on otherwise stressed plants.
Throughout the orchid world there are numerous recommendations to either use dish soaps or such agents
variously mixed with isopropyl or other substances. Great caution should be used with dish soaps.
Although most, if not all, are effective against immature aphids they are also deleterious to the plants. The
harsher detergents will remove the natural protective waxes of the plant cuticle. If dish detergents are used
in any manner, then use brands that are known to have the mildest reactions with plants. However, be
judicious in their use as different manufacturing batches will differ in their chemical properties. A good
rule of thumb is to not use soaps more than three times consecutively; allow the plants to grow and recover
before additional applications.
Insecticides. There is a large selection of insecticides available for aphid control. Relatively few are
available for use on ornamentals or in greenhouses and most of those have restricted use labels. Only the
generally available insecticides and those usable on ornamentals or indoors are mentioned here.
The most popular and effective insecticides for aphid control are malathion, acephate, diazinon, and
methiocarb. Oxydemeton-methyl (Metasystox) is an effective alternative in countries other than the
United States where the chemical is no longer available due to a voluntary deregistration. All of these
chemicals are broad spectrum and are effective on many pests other than aphids. The biggest drawback to
these insecticides is that aphids are well documented in their ability to develop resistance to them.
Consequently, their use is recommended only on a limited basis and within a rotational program with other
insecticides having different modes of action.
Cinnamaldehyde is derived from the bark of Cinnamomum trees and is a contact poison. Synthetic
formulations (e.g., Cinnamite, Cinnacure) are more commonly available. Effective control of aphids and
other pests requires persistent wetting for at least 30 minutes. The chemical volatizes quickly and degrades
within a few hours. Powdered cinnamon, as commonly used as a fungicide, lacks sufficient concentrations
of cinnamaldehyde and is ineffective as an insecticide.
Imadochloprid is used as a soil drench (Merit) or foliar application (Marathon II) to provide systemic
action through the host plant. It has a long environmental life.
Pyridaben (Sanmite) is a metabolic inhibitor affecting electron transport across cellular membranes. It
effectiveness against aphids is still being tested, but it appears promising and has the dual benefit of being a
miticide.
Abamectin is a mixture of avermectins that are compounds extracted by fermentation of the soil bacterium
Streptomyces avermitilis. Avermectins are systemic in action but they have an environmental life of only a
few days.
Pyrethroids are synthetic forms of the naturally occurring pyrethrum; the latter lacks control ability on
aphids. Pyrethroids effective on aphids include bifenthrin (e.g., Talstar), cyfluthrin (Decathlon), and
fluvalinate (Mavrik). However, much like synthetic insecticides aphids are able to quickly develop
resistance to regular and excessive use of a pyrethroid. There use is recommended only as needed. If
aphids are persistent pests then a rotational program with at least two other insecticides of different modes
of action will be necessary for sustained management.
Insect growth regulators, such as kinoprene (Enstar II) and fenoxycarb (Award), are synthetic forms of
juvenile hormone which is highly important in insects at critical stages of their metamorphosis. The use of
growth regulators interrupts the normal development of the insects, including orchid pests such as scales,
mealybugs, aphids, and whiteflies. Growth regulators are registered for use in greenhouses and
interiorscapes, and are regarded as safe for humans and pets. Their greatest effectiveness is on pest
populations that are at low densities and comprised primarily of immatures. Established pests needing a
quick control should be subjected to another method that will kill adult insects.
Azadirachtin (Azatin and Neemazad) is a plant derived (neem tree) botanical insecticide, that acts as a
chitin inhibitor. Chitin is a primary compound used by insects and mites when developing their
integument, or exoskeleton. Azadirachtin reduces the ability of the arthropods to properly develop an
integument and causes mortality through incomplete development. There is little information available on
this chemical for use on orchids, but it is available on a wide variety of ornamentals and is labeled for
greenhouse applications.
Some Aphid Chemical Use Recommendations
Chemical Site
Abamectin outdoors
Acephate greenhouse,
outdoors
Azadiractin greenhouse
Bifenthrin greenhouse
Carbaryl outdoors
Cinnamaldehyde greenhouse
Cyfluthrin greenhouse,
outdoors
Diazinon outdoors
Fenoxycarb greenhouse
Fluvilinate greenhouse,
outdoors
Imadichloprid greenhouse,
outdoors
Insecticidal soap home,
greenhouse, outdoors
Isopropyl home
Kinoprene home,
greenhouse
Malathion outdoors
Metasystox outdoors
Oils – hort, neem, veg. home,
greenhouse, outdoors
BIOLOGICAL CONTROL
Biological control, or biocontrol, of orchid pests is a natural control method that
does not use pesticides. In fact, the use of pesticides concurrently with biocontrol
agents is self-defeating. Rather, management of pests is accomplished by using
natural predators and parasites to keep the pest population low. Biocontrol
eradicates pests only under carefully manipulated conditions, and for all pests and
conditions is most effective in greenhouses. However, initiation of a successful
biocontrol program requires the development of large populations of aphids to
establish the biocontrol agents. In addition to an avoidance of pesticides,
biocontrol users should not use yellow or other sticky traps while predators and
parasites are active. Many of the biocontrol insects will be attracted to sticky
traps.
Biocontrol of pests is a viable option for the home grower with a greenhouse, or
commercial growers seeking an “organic” marketing niche. However, a completely
aphid-free organically grown plant may require supplemental applications of insect
growth hormone or other acceptable chemicals.
Aphid midge. The aphid midge (Aphidoletes aphidomyza) is a small insect and a
member of the same family of true flies
(Order Diptera, Family Cecidomyiidae) as
the Dendrobium blossom midge. It is
generally similar in its small and delicate
size, dark color, long legs, and slender
body. However, the aphid midge has a
predatory larva that reportedly may feed
on 10-100 aphids depending on the size of
the aphids and the environmental
conditions. The aphid midge requires
high humidity and is most effective with
at least a 16 hour day. The larva is a small, yellowish maggot, that is active on plant
leaves and shoots where it seeks and attacks aphids. Apparently, this aphid predator is
not particular about the prey species. The adult aphid midge feeds on honeydew and
other liquids, and is active under reduced light. Each female aphid midge may lay about
70 eggs on the surface of leaves. Pupation occurs in fragile cocoons in the potting media.
Lacewings. The common green lacewings (Order Neuroptera, Family Chrysopidae)
familiar to most orchid growers and the brown lacewings (Family Hemerobiidae) are
efficient predators of aphids, scale and mealybug crawlers, whitefly immatures, and other
pests. There are many species of both green (Chrysopa and Chrysoperla spp.) and brown
lacewings (various genera) useful for biological control, but only a few species of
Chrysoperla are commercially available. These insects are very useful in greenhouses.
Although the adults of Chrysopa
and brown lacewings are
predatory it is generally the larvae
of both green and brown
lacewings that are important for
aphid biocontrol. Larvae are
cannibalistic and must be widely
spread in a greenhouse, and they
are most effective in aphid
predation as they grow. Yet, each
larva may consume several
hundred aphids. Adult lacewings
are attracted to lights and will
enter unscreened greenhouses.
Lacewings require only moderate
humidity and temperatures. The
adults feed on honeydew, sugar
water, and other liquids, though
some of the brown lacewings
may also feed on prey. The spraying of sugar water may help to keep adult lacewings in
the proximity of plants.
Ladybeetles. Certain ladybeetles (Order Coleoptera, Family Coccinellidae) are wellknown
predators of aphids, scales, mealybugs, spider mites, and other pests, but there are
some pest species of ladybeetles, too. There are many beneficial species worldwide, but
few are commercially available. The convergent
ladybeetle (Hippodamia convergens) is one of the most
common biocontrol species used for aphids, but it is best
for outdoor use and large greenhouses. Also, the
convergent
ladybeetle will
disperse widely
shortly after release
so that their use most
effective in a greenhouse that contains a substantial
aphid population. Inundating the aphids with
ladybeetles will reduce, but not eliminate the aphids.
The ladybeetles will remain among plants longer if
sugar water is sprayed lightly on occasion to give the beetles an additional source of
water and carbohydrate.
Convergent ladybeetles are a useful and
effective management option with other
biocontrol agents or judiciously used
chemicals, such as kinoprene or pyrethroids.
Convergent ladybeetles will also feed on other
pests, such as spider mites, thrips, scales,
mealybugs, and others, but other ladybeetles
are best used for scales and mealybugs.
In recent years the invasive Asian ladybeetle
(Harmonia axyridis) has distributed widely in northern North America. This species is
also an aphid predator, but its use in greenhouses has not been evaluated. Unfortunately,
this species has also shown itself to be an ecological and agricultural problem by
deleteriously competing against native ladybeetles, disrupting natural communities,
feeding on a variety of fruit crops, and becoming a serious nuisance and health pest when
large overwintering populations enter buildings.
Syrphid flies, hover flies, flower flies. Syrphidae is a
large family of true flies (Order Diptera) with many
species familiar to outdoor gardeners as small to
medium-sized visitors to flowers. The adult fly typically
hovers above the flower before settling to sip nectar or
lap pollen. Most of the common syrphid flies have
yellow and black bands, or brown patterns, that mimic
wasps and bees. Syrphid flies are harmless. However,
the larvae of some species are voracious predators of
aphids. These larvae, such as Scaeva pyrastri who may
consume upwards of 500 aphids during its development,
are green with a yellowish-white stripe along the
midline.and narrowing toward the head. Bugg (1992)
reported upon aphid feeding syrphids and noted that at
least 49 species are known to feed on the green peach aphid. Allograpta oblique is a
common North American species in many gardens.
Adults will enter unscreened greenhouses in search of flowers and females will oviposit
near aphid colonies. Larvae are sensitive to insecticides and will be preyed upon by other
predatory insects such as minute pirate bugs.
Parasitoid wasps. A number of parasitiod wasps (Order Hymenoptera, Families
Aphidiidae and Aphelinidae) are used for the
biocontrol of aphids. The more common and
commercially
available
species are
Aphelinus
abdominalis.,
Aphidius
matricarae,
Aphidius colmani, Diaeretiella rapae, Lysiphlebus
testaceipes, and many others. All of these tiny wasps
(< 1.5 mm) lay eggs inside the aphid and the wasp
larva feeds on internal tissues. The effectiveness of these wasps is measured by noting
the presence of tan or black colored aphids with large holes in their abdomen from which
the wasp emerged. Aphid parasitoids are highly effective when aphid populations are
low, but are extremely sensitive to insecticides and traps. Greenhouses should be well
screened to prevent escape of the wasps.
Minute Pirate Bugs. Minute pirate bugs are true bugs
(Order Hemiptera, Family Anthocoridae). They are dark
brown and white, or black and white, small bugs (ca. 1.5-
2.5mm in length) that are predacious on many small and
soft-bodied arthropods, including aphids, spider mites,
thrips, and whiteflies. Although most species are
beneficial, two species, Orius insidiosus and Orius
tristicolor are commonly used for biocontrol of aphids and
other greenhouse pests. Minute pirate bugs do best with
the humidity exceeding 50% and a pollen supply for supplemental feeding. The only
drawback of minute pirate bugs is that they are generalist predators and will feed on other
beneficial species as well as pest species.
Beauveria bassiana. This naturally occurring soil fungus is highly infectious to aphids
and many other pests. Augmenting the natural population is effective for pest control if
the proper conditions are maintained. The fungus must be protected from ultraviolet
light, but this is usually accomplished with greenhouse glazings. Only moderate
humidity is necessary, but a thorough spray coverage is essential. Infected dead and
dying aphids will have fine whitish mycelia emerging from the body.
As with the use of predators and other parasites, B. bassiana requires several days or
more to begin showing an effect on the aphid population. Fungicides should not be used
within 48 hours of a B. bassiana application.
FINAL CONSIDERATIONS
Effective management and control of aphids requires effort on the part of the grower, particularly if cultural
and biocontrol methods are used. The grower must be familiar with the identification and life history of the
problem species, as well as anticipated predators and parasites, and have an intimate knowledge of the
growing conditions of their plants. Non-pesticide alternatives are more physically and intellectually
involved. In contrast, pesticide use is generally less expensive and easier, requires less depth of knowledge
and involvement, but retains all the inherent hazards. The most effective pest control is population
management using combinations of environmental conditions, biocontrol agents, and different categories of
pesticides.
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